Histria (ancient city)

For other uses, see Histria (disambiguation).

Histria

Ἰστρίη (in Ancient Greek)
Panorama of the site
Shown within Romania
Alternative name	Istros
Location	Istria, Constanța, Romania
Region	Dobruja
Coordinates	44°32′51″N 28°46′29″E
Type	fortified city, settlement
Area	82 ha
History
Founded	mid-7th century BC
Abandoned	mid-7th century AD
Site notes
Archaeologists	Ernest Desjardins, Vasile Pârvan,
Condition	Ruined
Ownership	Public
Public access	Yes

Histria or Istros (Ancient Greek: Ἰστρίη) was founded as a Greek colony or polis (πόλις, city) on the western coast of the Black Sea near the mouth of the Danube (known as Ister in Ancient Greek) but whose banks are today about 70 km away. In antiquity, it also bore the names Istropolis, Istriopolis, and Histriopolis (Ἰστρόπολις, Ἰστρία πόλις) or simply Istros/Histros (Ἴστρος). It is near the modern town of Istria.

It was the first urban settlement on today's Romanian territory when founded by Milesian settlers in the 7th century BC and was inhabited for at least 1200 years.

It was under Roman rule from the 1st to 3rd centuries AD in the Roman province of Moesia and was rebuilt with a fort. Invasions during the 7th century AD rendered it indefensible, and the city was abandoned.

The Tabula Peutingeriana shows it 11 miles from Tomis and 9 miles from Ad Stoma.

Eastern Moesia and Moesian Limes, and Ancient towns and colonies in Dobruja (modern coastline shown by a dashed line)

Plan of Histria

The site

The basilica, 3rd century AD

Location

Histria was situated on a peninsula on the Black Sea linked by marshy ground to the mainland and near the river known today as Istria. The ancient seashore has since been transformed into the western shore of Sinoe Lake, as the Danube's silt deposits formed a shoal which closed off the ancient coastline. Parts of the city lie under the murky waters of Lake Sinoe which at the time was an open northern bay, while another bay on the southern shore served as the port. The acropolis with sanctuaries was established on the highest point of the city overlooking the sea. The town of the 6th century was 1/2 mile (800 m) to the west of the acropolis.

History

Background

In the archaic age Miletus, which Herodotus called "the jewel of Ionia", was one of the most active cities in Greek colonisation. It founded a large number of colonies admired by ancient writers such as Seneca the Elder, Strabo and Pliny, mostly in the Propontis (Sea of Marmara) and Black Sea regions. Many of these were identified and partially discovered in the last two centuries. The Milesian colonisation led to a fundamental change of the Black Sea region, integrating it as a Greek region for the first time in history. The first colonies were founded near the mouths of the great rivers, the Danube, Don and Istria.

Greek Period

Evolution of Greek walls A=acropolis P=plateau

Established by Milesian settlers in order to facilitate trade with the native Getae, Histria is considered the oldest urban settlement on Romanian territory. Scymnus of Chios (ca 110 BC), dated its founding to 630 BC, while Eusebius of Caesarea set it during the time of the 33rd Olympic Games (657-6 BC).

Archaeological evidence suggests that trade with the interior followed the foundation of Histria demonstrated by finds of Attic black-figure pottery, coins, ornamental objects, an Ionian lebes and many fragments of amphoras found in great quantity at Histria, some imported but some local. Local pottery was produced following establishment of the colony and certainly before the mid-6th century. During the archaic and classical periods, when Histria flourished, it was situated near fertile arable land. It served as a port of trade soon after its establishment, with fishing and agriculture as additional sources of income. It also had a large territory (chora).

The earliest documented currency on today's Romanian territory was an 8-gram silver drachma, issued by the city around 480 BC.

In the 4th century the Scythians who often crossed the Drobrogea area for plunder were led by Ateas and were eventually fought off by the Macedonians. The result was Macedonia's domination of the Greek colonies of Dobrogea and Lysimachus occupied the area after the death of Alexander. Histria suffered significant damage towards the end of the 4th century possibly in the revolt of 313 BC by the nearby Greek cities against the Macedonians which failed. In 260 BC Histria was defeated by Byzantion although allied with Kallatis.

In 71 BC the Romans under Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus, the proconsul of Macedonia, occupied the city and the rest of Dobrogea, but did not leave garrisons afterwards.

The Battle of Histria (c. 62–61 BC) was fought nearby between the Bastarnae peoples of Scythia Minor and the Roman Consul Gaius Antonius Hybrida, Governor of Macedonia. The Bastarnae emerged victorious.

At the end of the Hellenistic era (before 30 BC), the city was subjugated by the Dacian king Burebista.

Roman Period

Evolution of Roman walls A=acropolis P=plateau

In 29 BC Histria came under Roman domination when Marcus Licinius Crassus, proconsul of Macedonia, annexed the whole of Dobrogea after his military campaign against the Bastarnae who had crossed the Danube and threatened Roman allies in Thrace.

During the Roman period from the 1st to 3rd centuries AD, a prosperous era began again notable by the construction of a new enclosure wall, new public buildings such as baths and temples and laws. In 100 AD the governor of the province of Moesia Inferior, Manius Laberius Maximus, granted the Histrians territorial limits (fines Histrianorum) and the right to exploit the Danube Delta, rich in fish, where most of the city's income came from at that time. Under Caracalla (r.211-217) Histria appears in several inscriptions, "the most brilliant city of the Histrians", a formula that refers both to the glorious past and to the development of the city from that period.

This prosperity was dramatically interrupted in the middle of the 3rd century when the city was razed to the ground by the Goths. Histria was rebuilt as so many times in its past although reduced to an area of ​​about 6-7 hectares in the eastern part, Histria managed to preserve its identity as a Greek city. In the 4th-6th centuries even in a smaller area, Histria represented an important Christian centre, revealed by archaeology. An episcopal basilica was built in the centre of the city and there were at least five other basilicas.

Halmyris bay was eventually closed by sand deposits and access to the Black Sea gradually was cut but trade continued until the 6th century AD. The invasion of the Avars and the Slavs in the 7th century AD almost entirely destroyed the city and the population; the city and its name disappeared.

The city

The city had paved streets and was protected by strong walls. The total area was about 80 ha of which more than half is covered by water.

To the west, on the plateau beyond the harbour, excavations brought to light an artisanal neighbourhood with numerous ovens. Beginning at the third quarter of the 6th century BC, the city was surrounded with a system of double walls: the plateau was defended by an earth wall on a stone plinth and with a wooden superstructure, and the Acropolis was defended by a succession of stone walls. In the later classical period the expansion of the public area of the Acropolis needed a new wall which reflects the transition of History from an oligarchic regime to a democratic one, a fact mentioned by Aristotle . Afterwards, the Hellenistic stone wall marked the narrowing of the citadel due to the beginning of sanding of the port.

Water was supplied by a 12.5 mile (20 km)-long aqueduct.

Archaeology

The ruins of the settlement were first identified in 1868 by French archaeologist Ernest Desjardins. Archaeological excavations were started by Vasile Pârvan in 1914, and continued after his death in 1927 by teams of archaeologists led successively by Scarlat and Marcelle Lambrino (1928–1943), Emil Condurachi (1949–1971), Dionisie Pippidi (1971-1989), Petre Alexandrescu (1990-1999), Alexandru Suceveanu (1990-2009), Alexandru Avram and Mircea Angelescu (starting 2010). The Histria Museum, founded in 1982, exhibits some of these finds. The excavation project and site also features prominently in the film The Ister.

Archeological research in Histria managed to identify and classify several layers on site. The layer stratification can be divided primarily between the Archaic and Classical periods:

Archaic Greek layers

The ancient Greek city covered around 60 hectares. There are very few written references to the archaic city and archeological research provides the main historical resource. The main deity was Apollo Ietros (The Healer). Zeus (Gr. Polieus) was the protector deity of the city and Aphrodita was also confirmed by archeological research. Historians believe all six Milesian tribes (Greek: phylai) were represented in the colony, yet only four tribes are attested to: the Aigikoreis, Argadeis, Boreis and Geleontes. The only clue concerning the government of the city was given by Aristotle in Politica. Thanks to his comment, it is clear that the first government of Histria was an oligarchy. From an economic point of view, the town was developed around port-related activities.

Archaic Greek layer I (650–600 BC)

The Apollo sculpture's inscription.

After the stage of emporium, a polis was founded soon after 650 BC. Temples and dwellings of this time were discovered. By the beginning of the 6th century, Histria was already a prosperous colony.

Archaic Greek layer II (600–550 BC)

During this period a new city wall was built around the city, probably in connection with the frequent raids of the scythians. The Acropolis started to be defended by a wall, discovered by Sc. Lambrino. Another city wall was running around the western Plateau, defending also the port.

Archaic Greek layer III (550–500 BC)

The Archaic age of Histria is finishing with a massive destruction on the occasion, most probably, of an expedition of the Persian general Mardonios (Mardonios (old Persian Marduniya, Persian Mrdunya, Greek Μαρδόνιος (Mardónios), Latin Mardonius; † 479 B. C. during the battle of Plateaea). Another theory says the destruction of the city has taken place, probably in 512 BC, when Darius I undertook a war against the Scythians. It is still unclear if this fact is connected to the Persian expedition led by Darius, to the Scythians followers of the Persian army during the retreat or to the expedition of Mardonios.

Human Sacrifice Evidence

In 2021, the article "Of Human Sacrifice and Barbarity: a case study of the Late Archaic Tumulus XVII at Istros" was released. In this article, M. Fowler (2021) presents the evidence found at the Northern Necropolis of the Pontic Greek settlement that supports the claim of human sacrifice being practiced in this area.

Classical Greek layers

During the classical period, there was continuity in the cults of Apollo Ietros; Zeus (Gr. Polieus) and Aphrodita. During the classical period many written sources describe the political organisation of the area. The Odrysian kingdom was involved in fighting with the Scythians ruled by Ariapeithes and Histria was situated between the two kingdoms. Due to that, most probably, Histria town was forced to join the Delian League. In the 5th century BC, these colonies were under the influence of the Delian League, passing in this period from oligarchy to democracy. From an economic point of view it was during this era that the first Histrian coins were minted: a didrachma, oboli and bronze coins.

Classical Greek layer I (500–425 BC)

The town was flourishing in the period of Athens's Peloponnesian Wars when the Athenian fleet came to the Greek colonies placed on the shores of the Pontos Euxeinos (Black Sea) to collect the contributions for the Delian Treasure (Thucydides). A new wall was built to protect a wider area then before, around the Histrian Acropolis, probably in connection with the democratic "revolution" mentioned by Aristotle in The Politics (cap. 5), referring to the change of the Histrian constitution, evolving from oligarchy to democracy. The city wall, protecting the settlement and the port, was repaired.

Classical Greek layer II (425–350 BC)

The town was dismantled for a second time in the 4th century BC, during the war between the Scythian king Ateas and Macedonian king Philip II. who destroyed the city walls protecting the Acropolis and the one protecting the whole town.

Hellenistic layers

Remains of the grand deity temple.

During the Hellenistic period, there was continuity in the cult of Apollo Ietros, Zeus (Gr. Polieus) and Aphrodita. A new temple for a grand deity was built. There is also evidence of the cult of Athena, Poseidon, Helikonios, Taurios, Demetra, Hermes Agoraios, Heracles, Asclepios, Dioscurii and others. A new wall also appears, protecting a 10 ha area. During the Hellenistic period Histria had become an important supplier of grain for Greece. However, the economic power of Histria was represented by trade. In the Hellenistic period, the gymnasium and the theater were erected.

Hellenistic layer I (350–300 BC)

The town was once again destroyed around 339 BC. During the period 313–309 BC, a rebellion of Pontic towns took place. Miletus however awarded Histrians equal political rights, or so-called isopoliteia.

Hellenistic layer II (300–175 BC)

Around 260 BC, Byzantium was involved in a dispute with Histria and Callatis (modern Mangalia) over Tomis emporion (Εμπόριον, market) (i.e. modern Constanţa). Another destruction of the city, somewhere around 175 BC, was most probably wreaked by Bastarni passing through after being called upon by Macedonian king Philip V or Perseus to reinforce the army.

Hellenistic layer III (175–100 BC)

Mithridates installed a military garrison in Histria, which probably caused the third destruction of the city in the Hellenistic period. During the rule of Mithridates staters are minted in Histria.

Hellenistic layer IV (100–20 BC)

Burebista arrived in Dobruja.

(Gaius Antonius Hybrida)...while governor of Macedonia, had inflicted many injuries upon the subject territory as well as upon that which was in alliance with Rome, and had suffered many disasters in return. 2 For after ravaging the possessions of the Dardanians and their neighbours, he did not dare to await their attack, but pretending to retire with his cavalry for some other purpose, took to flight; in this way the enemy surrounded his infantry and forcibly drove them out of the country, even taking away their plunder from them. 3 When he tried the same tactics on the allies in Moesia, he was defeated near the city of the Istrians by the Bastarnian Scythians who came to their aid; and thereupon he ran away...

The Hellenistic period was ended by Marcus Antonius who was in charge of the eastern Roman government, and was defeated by Octavian at Actium.

Roman layers

A Roman sundial

Early Roman layer IA (30–100 AD)

Continuous with the Hellenistic period. A new thermae (Thermae I) was built. This period is considered by historians, thanks to two inscribed artifacts, as the second founding of the city.

Early Roman layer IB (100–170 AD)

In around 170 AD, a part of the town was destroyed.

Early Roman layer IC (170–250 AD)

The town suffered serious destruction from which it never recovered. The main theory is that it was destroyed by an invasion of Goths and Carpi. Another theory presumes that the town was destroyed in an earthquake.

Late Roman layers IIA (after 250 AD)

• Late Roman layer IIB
• Late Roman layer IIIA
• Late Roman layer IIIB
• Late Roman layer IVA
• Late Roman layer IVB
• Late Roman layer VA
• Late Roman layer VB

Bulgarian period (9th and 10th centuries)

The Bulgars arrived in Scythia Minor in the late 7th century.

Gallery

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  Baths
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  Baths
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  Baths
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  Basilica
• 
  Histrian minted coins

See also

• Capidava
• Civitas Tropaensium
• Halmyris
• List of ancient towns in Scythia Minor
• Peuce Island
• Tropaeum Traiani

External links

• The Histria Archaeological Site
• Histria, dr. Al. Suceveanu, dr. M. Angelescu eds
• Histria's New Look - A 3D Model, dr. M. Angelescu
• History Microregion Sinoe - by Doctor Archaeologist Catalin Dobrinescu
• Tur video Histria - INP 360
• Hellenistic Greek inscriptions of Istros in English translation
• Greek cities on the western coast of the Black Sea, dissertation by S.Andrews, Chapter 4 (PDF)
• Wheel money /wheel coin/, 500-400 BC: ancient city Istros