Tactical history of association football

In the sport of association football, teams utilize tactics to inform their organization and decision-making on the pitch. Tactics play a major role in the way the sport is played, and how teams compete with one another. Due to the evolving nature of sports, however, tactics have changed significantly since football's inception, evolving from basic and rudimentary principles into elaborate, multi-layered plans that managers and teams employ in an attempt to best their opposition.

The following article will give a brief summary of the basics of tactics, followed by a timeline of some of the most important developments in the history of tactics in football.

Basics of tactics in football

The word tactics as it relates to football refers to the general principles, formation, mindset, and philosophy that a coach or manager instructs and trains their players to utilize within the game. Teams can utilize hundreds of different combinations of these tactical aspects to best suit their desired style of play.

A primary component of a tactic is the formation, which refers to the organization of the team's 11 players when on the pitch. Due to the fluid and dynamic nature of football, the positions that players take up are not set in stone nor do they entirely define the role of that player (with a moderate exception for the goalkeeper), but instead they dictate the general space they player should occupy relative to the positioning of their teammates. Formations themselves have changed and developed immensely over time, something which this article will analyze further with regard to each time period.

Each formation can operate under multiple different mindsets which can dictate the decisions players make on the pitch. For example, the speed at which a team wants to progress the ball up the pitch when they are in possession may dictate the types of passes players make. Should a team prioritize maintaining possession of the ball, they may utilize shorter, on-the-ground passes to their teammates so that there is a lower risk of dispossession, whereas a team prioritizing fast-paced counterattacks may utilize direct passes over large parts of the field to accelerate the movement of the ball up the pitch. A variety of tactical mindsets have come into prominence over the lifecycle of association football. One such example is Tiki-Taka football which prioritizes short ground passes and high possession, best exemplified by Pep Guardiola's 2009 FC Barcelona side. Another example would be Gegenpressing which prioritizes defending from the front, instructing players to attempt to press the enemy team and win back possession as high up the pitch as possible, exemplified by Jurgen Klopp's Premier League-winning 2019-2020 Liverpool side.

Nowadays viewers may witness a broad array of tactics and mindsets employed by coaches and teams across the hundreds of different leagues. Such diversity in thought and exercise was not always present in the sport however.

The development of tactics over time

The First "Formation"

In the late 19th century as football began to become a structured sport, the way it was played looked very different to how it is played today. At the time, players very rarely passed to one another, with defending and cooperation also falling to the wayside, with players instead solely focusing on dribbling past the opposition. The games consisted largely of all players chasing the ball around the pitch, with little rhyme or reason to their play. Due to this, there was no true formation, however, if one were to attempt to describe it it would be a 1-1-8, or a 1-2-7, with one player in goal (this player is not considered when numbering a formation), one defender, one to two midfielders, and 7 to 8 players at the top of the pitch attempting to score goals. The lack of passing present at this time was a symptom of the early stages of the offside rule which essentially prohibited forward passes. This was altered in 1886 to allow forward passes under the condition that three members of the defending team were in between the receiving player and the opposing goal. This alteration did not alter the dribble-first mindset present in the sport at the time.

This diagram demonstrates the 2-3-5 or "pyramid" formation utilized in the early 20th century.

The Passing Revolution

The first major piece of tactical innovation came from Sheffield, whose team utilized long passes over the heads of opposing players in order to clear their lines. This revelation of passing however is more commonly traced back to the sport's first international match, that being between England and Scotland. England were heavy favorites to win the game due to their weight advantage (an aspect which was far more important at the time), however, through their passing style, Scotland held England to a 0-0 draw, a result considered by many at the time to be a success. Slowly more and more teams began to utilize passing sequences and cooperation play in order to break down defenses rather than just taking turns trying to dribble past the opposing team. The advent of passing led to the introduction of more defensive formations such as a 2-3-5, which was the most popular formation up until the mid 1920's. Such a structure was more organized than what had been prior, with 5 players dedicated to attacking, and the other 5 focused on defending the goal.

The First World Cup

Football took its next step towards modernity in the late 1920's and early 1930's through the leadership of the World Cup-winning Uruguayan National team. The team completely revolutionized the idea of passing. Rather than punting the ball in the air over the heads of the opposition, the Uruguayans utilized short and fast passes on the ground that landed at the feet of their teammates, allowing them to control the pace of the match and dominate possession. The side dominated both the 1924 Olympics, defeating Switzerland 3-0 in the final, and the 1930 World Cup, defeating Argentina 4-2 in the final, illuminating the next step of progression for football as a sport.

The Austrian "Wunderteam"

The Austrian national team of the 1930s dominated European football through a similar style to the Uruguayan National team, utilizing quick passing to out-pace opposing sides. Additionally the side, under the coaching of Hugo Meisl, was the first to utilize what is known as a "false 9" which is a role in which a striker will drop deep (into the midfield) to collect the ball in space with their back to goal, as opposed to the common positioning of a striker at the time which was shoulder-to-shoulder with the defender. These tactics shaped the progression of professional football for the coming decades, with aspects of a false 9 still being utilized in today's game.

This image demonstrates the WM tactic utilized by the majority of teams between the 1930s and 1950s. It utilizes 3 defenders, 2 sets of 2 midfielders, and 3 attackers. This is likely the first implementation of the "Double Pivot" a tactical strategy used today in which teams utilize two defensive midfielders or pivots to control the midfield.

The Match of the Century

From the 1930's all the way until the 1950's, the most common formation was the WM formation, or a 3-2-2-3, as it provided a good balance of offense and defense, and was well-equipped to deal with the 2-3-5 pyramid formation that dominated the periods prior. These tactics were flipped on their head however during the 1953 match between England and Hungary which has been called the Match of the Century. The Hungarian team at the time, which featured player Ferenc Puskas (an individual widely considered to be one of the greatest players of all time), utilized a WW formation, or a 2-3-2-3. This formation created an overload in the midfield, giving the team more passing options and opportunities to progress the ball forward, whilst also utilizing a false 9 that created attacking opportunities for the Hungarian wingers. This tactic revolutionized football tactics as a whole as it utilized multiple core principles of football, manufacturing numerical and spatial advantages across the pitch. Through these revolutionary tactics, Hungary won the match 6-3, inciting a complete tactical shift across England and the rest of the world.

The Catenaccio

What spelled the end for both the WM and WW formations was the success of Italian side Inter Milan with the defensively-minded Catenaccio formation. This formation was used with moderate success in the late 1950s and early 1960s by the likes of Nereo Rocco and Alfredo Foni defensively-minded didn't truly reach its potential until utilized by Helenio Herrera at Inter Milan starting in 1960. Herrera's Catenaccio set up as a 5-3-2, a complete inversion of the once popularized 2-3-5 pyramid. His defensively minded tactic utilized a libero or "sweeper" which sat behind the defensive line in order to recover loose balls, help mark opposing strikers, and double up on attacking players when necessary. Tactics in the 1960's such as the Catenaccio prioritized strong and physically minded defenders. Due to the growing popularity of such tactics, offensive-minded tactics of the past began to see less and less use.

Total Football

Football tactics developed even further in the early 1970s, thanks to the strategies employed by Rinus Michels during his coaching stint at Ajax. Beginning in 1970, Rinus Michel, alongside legendary striker Johan Cruyff, employed a tactic known as "Total Football." Under this system, players were instructed to move around with complete freedom, being allowed to play any position on the pitch given the situation called for it, with their teammates responsible for covering their previous role. No one player outside of the goalkeeper was fixed to a predetermined role, allowing for the team to have complete fluidity. This tactic relied heavily on the adaptability and versatility of each player, making it not replicable for each and every team. Ajax found immense success with this tactic from 1971 past the departure of Michels himself, with the team winning 3 consecutive KNVB cups, 2 consecutive Eredivisie Titles, 3 consecutive European Cup titles (now known as UEFA Champions League), and the 1972 International Cup.

This graphic demonstrates the setup of a 4-4-2 formation.

Rise of the 4-4-2

The next tactical leap occurred with the rising prevalence of the 4-4-2, beginning in the late 1980's and continuing through the turn of the century. The tactic first found major success at the hands of AC Milan manager Arrigo Sacchi. Through his utilization of a high-pressing 4-4-2 in combination with an aggressive offside trap, Sacchi's Milan managed to win 1 Serie A title, 2 European Cups, 2 European Super Cups, 2 Intercontinental Cups, and 1 Supercoppa Italiana. The 4-4-2 found further success under the use of Sir Alex Ferguson during his time managing Manchester United (1986–2013). When using the 4-4-2 formation (early 1990s - early 2000s), Ferguson's Manchester United side won 8 Premier Leagues, 4 FA Cups, 1 League Cup, 4 FA Community Shields, 1 UEFA Champions League, 1 UEFA Super Cup, 1 Intercontinental Cup, and 1 FIFA Club World Cup. The 4-4-2, particularly under the use of Sir Alex Ferguson, relied on the attacking width provided by the attacking-minded fullbacks.

This image demonstrates the 4-3-3 formation utilizing two holding midfielders. There are a variety of other 4-3-3 formations, primarily differentiated by the positioning of the central midfielders.

Introduction of the 4-3-3

Moving into the late 2000s and early 2010s, teams such as Sir Alex Ferguson's Manchester United and Jose Mourinho's Chelsea began to set up in a 4-3-3 formation. This setup offered an additional player in the midfield compared with the 4-4-2, allowing for teams using a 4-3-3 to dominate the center of the pitch and retain possession for longer. Many 4-3-3's at the time featured a holding midfielder, who occupied a more defensive role and acted as a passing pivot, aiming to help progress the ball up the pitch in possession and win the ball back when out of possession.

Tactics of the Modern Age

There are currently multiple tactics being utilized in the modern game that are achieving success at the highest level. One of the most successful managers in recent history has been Pep Guardiola. From 2008-2012 with his time managing FC Barcelona, Guardiola utilized a style of play known as Tiki-Taka football which utilized short and quick ground passes to dominate possession and safely progress the ball up the pitch. Using this tactic, FC Barcelona won 3 La Liga titles, 2 Copa Del Rey's, 3 Supercopa de Espana's, 2 UEFA Champions Leagues, 2 UEFA Super Cups, and 2 FIFA Club World Cups. Pep Guardiola continues to use a similar style of play with his current club Manchester City, who have won 4 Premier League titles in the past 4 years, whilst also winning the Champions League in the 2022/2023 season. Other managers have found success utilizing different tactics from Pep's Tiki-Taka, one such example being Jurgen Klopp's Gegenpressing Liverpool side. Klopp's Liverpool side utilized a Gegenpressing style of play in which the team would play with a high offensive and defensive line, pressuring the opposition back line when out of possession, attempting to force a mistake and win back the ball. This functions as a very high-energy, fast strategy that attempts to dominate possession of the ball by winning it back as soon as it is lost. With this tactic, Liverpool won 1 Premier League, 1 FA Cup, 1 EFL Cup (Carabao Cup), 1 FA Community Shield, 1 UEFA Champions League, 1 UEFA Super Cup, and 1 FIFA Club World Cup from 2018-2022.